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telinit 1
But it will disconnect your ssh and you won't be able to login.
@rchurch no console? if not, then try remounting the filesystem readonly (will need to stop/kill processes writing to the filesystem) to run the fsck: http://wiki.gandi.net/en/iaas/references/server/fsck
Is it possible to set the file system to be read-only whilst logged in over the network, or switch to a file system on another device like a RAM based file system in order to fix the main disk?
It is possible to kill all processes, except init, sshd and your shell, then remount the file system read only, then perform fsck. However why do you want this? If it's a VPS you probably have some sort of console access? If it's a dedicated server with no IPMI, there is probably some rescue system you can boot to?
The problem is console access can be very slow, especially the browser based Html5 types. Not all providers have a reasonably speed console. Digital Ocean's version is very slow.
So back to your response. How is it possible to kill all processes except sshd and the shell and mount the file system readonly? I have been reading about pivot_root which is supposed to do something along those lines, but don't understand the details well enough.
This is an old post, but maybe it might help http://www.ivarch.com/blogs/oss/2007/01/resize-a-live-root-fs-a-howto.shtml